Which of the following can lead to the development of tardive dyskinesia?

Tardive dyskinesia is a movement disorder characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements, often affecting the face, tongue, and limbs. The most significant risk factor for the development of tardive dyskinesia is the long-term use of antipsychotic medications. These drugs, especially the typical antipsychotics, can lead to alterations in dopamine pathways in the brain, resulting in the dysregulation of movement control, which manifests as tardive dyskinesia after prolonged exposure.

Long-term exposure to these medications is what increases the risk, as the brain undergoes changes during prolonged treatment. This is why careful monitoring of patients taking antipsychotics is essential, particularly over extended periods, to catch early signs of this adverse effect and manage the dosage or consider alternative treatments if necessary.

The other options do not typically result in tardive dyskinesia. Antidepressants, over-the-counter pain relievers, and anxiolytics do not have the same association with movement disorders, particularly when used in short-term scenarios or as prescribed. Thus, the option that highlights the long-term use of antipsychotics directly ties into the established understanding of the etiology of tardive dyskinesia.